Endocrinology Review - Saif Borgan M.D.

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Episode 27: Cardiovascular safety of Testosterone Replacement Therapy

Friday, June 5, 2026 • Duration 05:53

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Learning objectives:

1- Identify main objective of the TRAVERSE study and be familiar with its outcomes pertaining to the primary safety end point of MACE

2- Identify other possible Adverse events associated with testosterone replacement therapy and contrast them with other systematic reviews and meta analyses already published

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Episode 26: Thyroid Storm and Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis

Season 2 · Episode 26

Thursday, March 13, 2025 • Duration 07:56

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Learning objectives:

1- Describe pathophysiology of Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis

2- Identify and manage thyroid storm

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Episode 25: Graves Eye Disease

Season 2 · Episode 25

Monday, January 27, 2025 • Duration 10:59

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Learning objectives:
- Describe pathophysiology of Graves eye disease
- Identify scoring systems used for classification of Graves eye disease
- Discuss potential treatments used for Graves eye disease, including their side effects

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Episode 24: Graves disease

Season 2 · Episode 24

Monday, January 20, 2025 • Duration 05:35

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Learning Objectives:
1- Describe the pathophysiology of Graves disease
2- Able to identify the presentation of Graves disease
3- Discuss different treatments modalities of Graves disease

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Episode 23: Subclinical Hyperthyroidism

Season 2 · Episode 23

Thursday, December 12, 2024 • Duration 06:05

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Learning objectives:

Define subclinical hyperthyroidism
Prevalence and causes of subclinical hyperthyroidism
Clinical impacts of subclinical hyperthyroidism
Management of subclinical hyperthyroidism

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Episode 22: Thyroiditis

Season 2 · Episode 22

Sunday, November 3, 2024 • Duration 08:07

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Episode 22: Thyroiditis

How to differentiate thyroiditis from other causes of hyperthyroidism
Phases of thyroiditis and how it can affect thyroid test results
Causes of thyroiditis, and key differences
Management of thyroiditis

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Episode 21 (edited): How to approach a high TSH

Season 2 · Episode 3

Monday, October 28, 2024 • Duration 05:40

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Episode 3 Approach to high TSH

Educational objectives:

1- Approach and differential diagnosis of high TSH

2- Picking up on hidden exam question clues in high TSH scenarios

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Episode 20: Approach to a Low TSH

Season 2 · Episode 2

Sunday, September 15, 2024 • Duration 07:25

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Hello and welcome to this episode. Today we will be discussing an approach to a low TSH.

We will be going over 2 review studies from The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism and then Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. But first today’s question:

A 50-year-old postmenopausal woman with no other notable history presenting with palpitations, frequent bowel movements, and tremors. She has no family history of thyroid dysfunction. She has mild tachycardia. Her thyroid gland is 20 g and nontender to palpation. Her TSH is < 0.1.

What is the best next step in evaluating this patient?

A Thyrotropin receptor antibodies

B Check Total T4

C Check Free T4 and T3

D Thyroid US

And the answer is T4 and Total T3. These questions, while seemingly simple, are actually guaranteed on board exams.

Initial thyroid function evaluation should start with TSH. In this case the TSH is low and there is clinical suspicion for hyperthyroidism. If TSH is suppressed, the immediate next step is to check T4 and T3 to confirm and further characterize the thyroid dysfunction (overt vs subclinical). This is worth repeating: investigating the cause of the suppressed TSH by checking thyroid hormones is important in determining how to proceed with evaluation and treatment.

In this question, checking the Free T4 is favored over total T4 because Total T4 levels can be affected by alterations in binding proteins. Checking T4 only is not sufficient because there are cases of isolated T3 thyrotoxicosis. Ordering receptor antibodies or starting treatment are premature at this point. Thyroid US is not a routine part of the diagnostic algorithm to hyperthyroidism. For this case, an iodine uptake scan could be performed to differentiate thyroiditis from true hyperthyroidism, but this would not be the best next step in this question.

Episode 19: Thyroid physiology and Deiodinase enzymes

Season 2 · Episode 1

Thursday, September 5, 2024 • Duration 06:04

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Endocrine Review Course Learning Objectives:
- Discuss thyroid hormone axis
- Discuss how thyroid hormone is produced
- Discuss the differences between T4 and T3
- Discuss the types of diodinase enzyme
- Discuss how thyroid hormone enters the cell
- List actions of thyroid hormone (on a molecular level)

TRANSCRIPT

Hello, my name is Kristen Lee and I am an Endocrinology fellow at Northwestern University in Chicago, Illinois. I am joining the Endocrine Review team and hope to help my colleagues pass the endocrine boards!

Todays question is: which of the diodinase enzymes is most active in illness?
Diodinase 1, 2 , 3 or 4.

And the Answer is Diodinase THREE

======

The learning objectives today:
In order to better understand and interpret thyroid laboratory findings we first need to take a step back and discuss the thyroid hormone regulatory pathway.

In particular the thyroid hormone axis
Starting at the hypothalamus, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) induces the pituitary to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). TRH interacts with the thyrotrophic cell receptor to influence TSH glycoclysation which informs TSH bioactivity.

TSH production is made in a pulsatile circadian fashion with its peak between 2am-4am (referred to as the nocturnal TSH surge) and its trough between 4p and 8p. In a euthyroid human, TSH is produced at between 50-200 milliunits/day and can increase to up to > 4000 mU/day in primary hypothyroidism. The half-life of TSH is betwee n 50 and 80 minutes. TSH bioactivity changes based on TSH glycosylation variability; due to different glycosylation nocturnal TSH is less bioactive which is why TSH does not lead to increased thyroid hormone production at night.

After TSH production, T SH binds to thyroid releasing hormone receptors on the thyroid follicular cells activating the thyroid synthesis cascade.The Thyroid Synthesis CascadeThere are five steps in the thyroid synthesis process. First the precursor protein thyroglobulin (TG) is made from thyrocytes in the thyroid follicular cells; this precursor protein does not yet contain iodine. Step #2 iodide is brought from the circulation to the thyrocytes and into the follicular cells. Step 3: the enzyme thyroid peroxidase (TPO) is activated and exacts three roles: oxidation, organification, and coupling reaction to ultimately form the four-iodine atom containing Thyroxine (T4). T4 is the major thyroid hormone product of the thyroid synthesis circulating in the bloodstream. T4 the inactive form of thyroid hormone is converted to the active form of thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3), comprised of 3 iodine atoms. The thyroid produces 90% inactive T4 thyroid hormone and 10% active thyroid hormone T3. Thyroid hormone is stored bound to thyroglobulin in the follicular stores. Upon TSH stimulation proteolytic enzymes cleave thyroglobulin and T4 and T3 are released into the bloodstream. Thyroid hormones are lipophilic and are transported in the blood via transport proteins. Both circulating thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) exert direct negative feedback on TRH synthesis in the hypothalamus. Peripheral deiodination of T4 to T3 in the liver and kidney accounts for approximately the other 80-90% of circulating T3. There are three types of deiodinase enzymes, type I (DIO1), II (DIO2), and III(DIO3).DIO1 primarily functions in the liver, kidney, and thyroid. DIO2 predominates in the brown adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, heart, and CNS. DIO3 is primarily located in the CNS, skin, and placenta. The majority of T4 to T3 conversion is through catalyzation by deiodinase type 2 which is found in many tissues throughout the body. DIO1 also converts T4 to active T3. DIO3 is DEACTIVATING meaning it converts T4 into reverse triiod

Episode 18: NAFLD Screening and Diagnosis

Season 1 · Episode 18

Saturday, December 30, 2023 • Duration 11:36

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Endocrine Review Course Learning Objectives:
- Understanding the meaning of the term "Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)"
- Discuss the difference between steatosis and steatohepatitis
- Understand which patient populations require screening for steatohepatitis related fibrosis
- Know the components of FIB4 score
- Understand the step-wise process in NAFLD screening and diagnosis

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Endocrinology Review – Details, episodes & analysis

Podcast details

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Apple Podcasts

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Latest published episodes

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Buzzsprout3

Apple Podcasts

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